Appendix 1: organisational culture models
There are various organizational culture models, and none of them can be considered the best or complete, as culture is such a complex aspect of an organization. However, it is important to understand the various models and their elements, when we want to decide which model might be more suitable to include in our culture assessment.
Hofstede considers 4 concepts in defining the culture of a group: symbols, heroes, rituals, and values. Symbols represent the most superficial part, and the values are the core and deepest manifestation of culture, which translates into rituals and accepted heroes. Practices is the term under which symbols, heroes, rituals, and values can be subsumed.
Hofstede also defined five dimensions of culture:
- power distance,
- uncertainty avoidance,
- individualism vs collectivism,
- masculinity vs femininity.
- long-term vs short-term orientation.
Figure 1: Onion model, Source (Hofstede, 2010)
Schein culture model builds on Hofstede's idea that culture is something that a group of people share, and he considers that culture is built around assumptions, values, and artifacts.
Uncovering the Levels of Culture
Figure 2: Levels of Culture, Adaptation after (Schein, 1985)
Deal and Kennedy's model brings two new dimensions to organisational culture: the degree of risk associated with a company’s activities and the speed of feedback on whether decision strategies are successful.
Four types of organisations are identified, each focused on the risk taken and how quickly the organisation receives feedback:
- Work-hard culture, pay-hard culture is characterised by rapid feedback/reward and low risk which results in high-speed action leading to high-speed recreation.
- Tough-guy macho culture has rapid feedback/reward and high risk, which might lead to potential loss/gain of reward. This culture type is focused on the present rather than the longer-term future.
- Process culture has slow feedback/reward and low risk, leading to a potentially comfortable and secure work environment but with potentially too many inefficient procedures and system layers.
- Bet-the-company culture has slow feedback/reward and high risk, resulting in potential delays of decision outcomes. This culture style takes a long-term view and requires more work to make sure things happen as planned.
A mix of all four cultures may be found within a single organisation.
Figure 3: Adaptation after Deal and Kennedy culture model (Deal & Kennedy, 1982)
G. Johnson – cultural web model, identifies several elements that can be used to identify and change the organisational culture.
At the heart of the web is the paradigm which is the organisation’s taken-for-granted assumptions. The paradigm needs to be identified and conceptualized to map the organisation’s culture.
The stories represent the past events that people talk about inside and outside the organisation. The symbols are the visual representations such as logos, styling of offices, and dress code.
The power structures are the pockets of real power. This may be one or two key senior executives, a whole group of executives, or even a department. The organisational structures include both the structure defined by the organisation chart and the unwritten lines of power and influence. Control systems are the way the organisation is controlled, which includes policies, financial systems, quality systems, and rewards. Finally, rituals and routines are the daily behaviours and actions of people that signal what is expected to happen in given situations.
What the models above show us is that organisational culture is complex and different drivers and elements are influencing it.
When looking to assess culture the various internal soft and hard aspects of an organisation need to be considered.
Figure 4: The cultural web (Potter, 2010)
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